Ringraziamo il prof. André Oberlé della University of Winnipeg per averci consentito di pubblicare la sua grammatica tra i nostri Libri Online, ad uso degli studenti dei corsi organizzati da San Giorgio Insieme e di chiunque altro voglia fruirne online.
Per il momento è disponibile solo in lingua inglese, stiamo lavorando alla traduzione in italiano. Manterremo comunque online anche la copia originale, ottimo strumento per migliorare l'inglese mentre si apprende il tedesco.
Il prof. Oberlè sta ora lavorando ad una nuova versione, più interattiva e completa di esercizi, che sarà disponibile per la fine del 2001.
These pages present a concise review of the essentials of German grammar for students at the Intermediate level. For a complete coverage of the grammar points investigated here, consult one of the standard references such as Duden IV: Die Grammatik.
Would you like to download the interactive CALL program German Review (130 KB)? This program gives a concise overview for important grammar items and offers progressive, interactive grammar exercises with instant feedback on all input and online help.
Nota di Libri Online: questo programma è in formato DOS e l'estensione va assolutamente rinominata da .zip a .exe per poter essere installato. Una versione più aggiornata è in preparazione.
Please note that the principles of the new orthography (neue deutsche Rechtschreibung) are reflected in the German examples given in these pages. These rules do not become official until August 1, 1998 but are introduced already to beginners in many jurisdictions.
For further details, you may want to consult the Home Page on Rechtschreibung of the Institut für Deutsche Sprache.
The Verb
Nouns and Pronouns
Adjectives and Adverbs
Prepositions
Basic Word Order
Numbers
Miscellaneous
The infinitive is the base form of the verb. In German, all infinitives end in en or n. Most infinitives end in en.
e.g. lernen, kommen, gehen, wandern, tun
From the infinitive, we can form the verb stem (the infinitive minus the en or n).
e.g. lern, komm, geh, wander, tu
We use the this verb stem to form the present tense by adding personal endings to it.
[ Table of Contents ] [ Glossary ]
In German, the present tense is used to express an action that is taking place in the present or in the future (when ambiguity is not possible because of the context).
Actions begun in the past and continuing into the present (e.g. I have been studying German for a year) will also use the present tense. Since German does not have the emphatic or progressive moods, these will also have to be translated by the present tense.
The statement Ich lerne Deutsch will have the following German equivalents:
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In the present tense the personal endings are added to the verb stem (the infinitive minus en or n).
The personal endings are:
lernen - to learn
ich lerne , du lernst, er/es/sie lernt, wir lernen, ihr lernt, sie/Sie lernen
Note:
When the verb stem ends in d or t or a consonant cluster (three or more consonants in a series - e.g. öffnen - to open) we must insert an extra e before adding the personal endings in the du-form, the er/es/sie-form and the ihr-form.
Example:
arbeiten - to work (verb stem = arbeit )
ich arbeite, du arbeitest, er/es/sie arbeitet, wir arbeiten, ihr arbeitet, sie/Sie arbeiten
When the verb stem ends in a sibilant (something that sounds like an s - i.e. s, ss, z, ß, z) we do not need to add another s in the du-form. This means in effect that the du-form and the er/es/ sie-form will have the same ending.
Example:
heißen = du heißt, er heißt
sitzen = du sitzt, er sitzt
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Prefixes are particles that are added to the beginning of a verb (hence prefix) to modify or change the meaning of the verb. An example of a prefixe in English would be describe, where the syllable de completely changes the meaing of the verb scribe.
In German, we have two kinds of prefixes:
Thus we would say: Ich verkaufe das nicht or Ich verstehe Sie nicht, because ver is an inseparable prefix.
However, in the present tense, separable prefixes are detached from the verb that shows a personal ending (the inflected verb) and will stand in final position in the clause.
Examples
In fact, separable prefixes are always detached from the verb when a personal ending is added to the verb. They will therefore be detached in the present and simple past tenses, and in the imperative.
Thus:
But:
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The verb sein is completely irregular in the present tense and has to be learned. Note the forms:
ich bin, du bist, er/es/sie ist, wir sind, ihr seid, sie/Sie sind
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Some German verbs undergo a shift in the stem vowel in the present tense.
This shift occurs only in the du-form and the er/es/sie-forms.
Here are some of these verbs:
[e] to [i] geben, nehmen, essen, treffen, messen
[e] to [ie] sehen, lesen, geschehen, stehlen,
[a] to [ä] fahren, schlafen, fallen, wachsen
[au] to [äu] laufen, saufen
It's easy to remember the possible changes in stem vowels:
[e] may change to [i] or [ie]
geben - du gibst, er/sie/es gibt sehen - du siehst, er/sie/es sieht
[a] may change to [ä]
fahren - du fährst, er/sie/es fährt
[au] may change to [äu]
laufen - du läufst, er/sie/es läuft
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The verb haben fits into the category of verbs that are irregular in the du and er/es/sie-forms. Note the forms:
ich habe du hast, er/es/sie hat, wir haben, ihr habt, sie/Sie haben
Note that the b of the stem hab has been dropped from both the du and er/es/sie-forms
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
There are six modal auxiliaries. Modals are helping verbs. They add the indicated flavour to the verbal expressions:
1) können (ability) er/es/sie kann
2) dürfen (permission) er/es/sie darf
3) mögen (liking) er/es/sie mag
4) wollen (desire) er/es/sie will
5) müssen (constraint) er/es/sie muss
6) sollen (obligation) er/es/sie soll
NOTE: All but the verb sollen have a change in the stem vowel throughout the singular.
All modals have regular forms in the plural
e.g. wir müssen, ihr müsst, sie müssen
The verb wissen - which is not a modal - also has a change in the stem vowel throughout the singular
wissen (to know) ich weiß, du weißt er/es/sie weiß
The plural of wissen, is, of course, regular (wir wissen, ihr wisst, sie/Sie wissen)
Let us now look at the conjugation of a modal.
NOTE: The ich-form and the er/es/sie-form have no ending and that the plural forms are regular.
Example:
ich kann _ , du kann st, er/es/sie kann _
wir können, ihr könnt, sie/Sie können
The verb wissen behaves in the same way:
ich weiß, du weißt, er/es/sie weiß
wir wissen, ihr wisst, sie wissen
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The imperative is the mood for making requests and giving orders or commands.
Since German has three ways of saying you (du, ihr and Sie), it follows quite logically that there are also three different forms for the imperative.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
For people we address as du, we use the verb stem (the infinitive minus the en or n).
e.g. komm(e)! mach(e)!
An optional e is sometimes added to soften the tone of the command.
For verbs whose stem ends in a t or d or in a consonant cluster (three consonants in a row), we must add an e to the stem before adding the endings.
e.g. arbeite! öffne! lande!
For two or more people we address as ihr, we use the verb in the ihr-form without the pronoun.
e.g. kommt! macht! arbeitet! öffnet! landet!
For people whom we address in the polite form Sie, we invert the Sie-form of the verb.
e.g. kommen Sie! machen Sie!, arbeiten Sie!, öffnen Sie! landen Sie!
Note: German often uses the period instead of the exclamation for punctuation in imperatives. In these examples we have used exclamation marks to show that we are dealing with commands.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The verb sein has the following imperative forms:
du = sei! - ihr = seid! - Sie = seien Sie!
All other German verbs have regular imperatives in the plural, (i.e. the wir, ihr and Sie-imperatives).
Thus only the du-imperatives can be irregular for verbs other than sein.
There are two relatively small groups of verbs with irregular imperatives:
1) Verbs that have a vowel shift from [e] to [i] or [ie] in the present tense. Such verbs must change the [e] to an [i] or [ie] in the DU-IMPERATIVE as well.
e.g. geben = gib, sehen = sieh
2) When the verb stem (infinitive without n or en) ends in a t, a d or a consonant cluster (three or more consonants in a series - e.g. öffnen). Such verbs must add an e to the du-imperative.
e.g. arbeiten = arbeite, landen = lande, öffnen = öffne
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In the imperative (command-form) the prefix is detached from the verb and placed at the end of the clause.
e.g. Ute, kauf morgen ein! Frau Schmidt, nehmen Sie meine Tochter mit! Kinder, steht morgen früher auf!
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The present perfect is used to describe an action that has taken place in the past and is no longer taking place at the time of the description.
e.g. ich habe gelernt - ich bin gekommen
The German present perfect has several English equivalents. Thus, Ich habe Deutsch gelernt will have the following English translations:
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The present perfect is formed with the present tense of the verb haben - (in a few cases with the verb sein) - and the past participle of the verb. The past participle stands last in the clause.
Ich habe da sehr oft gearbeitet.
Er hat so etwas noch nie gekauft.
The past participle of regular verbs is formed by adding ge to the front of the verb stem (that is the infinitive without the n or en ending) and t or et to the end of the stem.
lernen = gelernt,
kaufen = gekauft
When the verb stem ends in t or d or a consonant cluster (three or more consonants in a series - e.g. öffnen) an et must be added to the stem.
arbeiten = gearbeitet,
öffnen =geöffnet
No ge is added if the verb begins with an inseparable prefix (i.e. be, ent, emp, er, ge, miss, ver, zer), or when the verb contains the syllable ieren
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Irregular verbs form the Present Perfect with the present tense of the verb haben (and in a few cases with the verb sein) and the past participle of the verb. This past participle is placed at at the end of the clause. The past participle of irregular verbs is formed by adding ge to the beginning of a stem with a vowel change and en at the end of this stem. There is, of course no ge when the verb contains the syllable ieren or has an inseparable prefix.
Some verbs use sein as an auxiliary. These are intransitive verbs - they have no object - and they signal a change. Many verbs of locomotion (where a change from one location to another is described) fall into this category:
Examples:
gehen (gegangen), kommen (gekommen), fahren (gefahren), schwimmen (geschwommen), fliegen (geflogen), ziehen (gezogen)
The verbs sein, werden, and bleiben also use sein as an auxiliary.
Here are some examples for the Present Perfect:
Present: Ich schwimme da sehr oft.
Present Perfect: Ich bin da sehr oft geschwommen.
Present: Er schreibt mir manchmal einen Brief.
Present Perfect: Er hat mir manchmal einen Brief
geschrieben.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
A few verbs such as kennen form their past participles by adding a ge to the beginning of the stem (infinitive minus en or n) and a t to the end. The stem in mixed verbs, however, shows a shift in the stem vowel in the past participle.
Therefore the past participle for kennen will be: gekannt
Such verbs are called mixed verbs because they exhibit characteristics of regular and irregular verbs. Here are some common ones. Note that rennen is conjugated with sein:
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Verbs with separable prefixes form the present perfect the usual way (i.e. the present tense of haben and sein and the past participle at the end of the clause).
The past participle is also formed the usual way (i.e. ge is added to the beginning of the stem and t or en to the end). The prefix is then attached to the beginning of the past participle.
kaufen = gekauf t
einkaufen = eingekauf t
Two examples:
Ich habe da gestern eingekauft
Sie ist schon sehr früh aufgestanden.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The simple past is used to describe an action that has taken place in the past and is no longer taking place at the time of the description. it is mainly used in narratives and in more formal German.
e.g. ich lernte (I learned)- ich kam (I came)
The German simple past has several English equivalents. Thus, Ich lernte Deutsch will have the following English translations:
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In regular (weak) verbs the form of the stem (the infinitive minus the en or n) remains unchanged when the simple past tense is formed:
spielen ich spielte,
warnen ich warnte
Note that all forms except the ich-form and the er/sie/es-form add endings to the te past-tense marker. These endings look just like the regular present-tense endings.
Let's look at the simple past tense of a typical verb:
ich kauf te, du kauftest er/es/sie kaufte, wir kauften, ihr kauftet, sie/Sie kauften
The past-tense marker te becomes ete when the verb stem ends in d or t, or when a consonant cluster (3 or more consonants in a series - e.g. ich öffnete) occurs.
ich arbeitete,
ich öffnete
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Strong verbs usually have a stem vowel change in the simple past. e.g. schwimmen = ich schwamm Some verbs also have consonant changes. e.g. ziehen = ich zog
Let us look at a common irregular verb sein (to be)
ich war, du warst, er/es/sie war, wir waren, ihr wart, sie/Sie waren
and the verb schwimmen (to swim)
ich schwamm, du schwammst, er/es/sie schwamm, wir schwammen, ihr schwammt, sie/Sie schwammen
Note the following characteristics:
There are no endings in the ich-form and in the er/es/sie-form. The ich-form and the er/es/sie-form therefore always look the same.
The endings for the other forms look like the endings of the present tense.
The nature of the stem change has to be learned as in English. However, verbs with similar looking infinitives often have the same stem change.
essen = aß
vergessen = vergaß
messen = maß
Many verbs that are irregular in English are also irregular in German and often the sound change is similar. So, if you are forced to guess, follow the pattern suggested by the English. More often than not your answer will lead to a correct guess.
swim = swam in English, schwimmen = schwamm in German.
eat = ate in English, essen = aß in German
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
A few verbs are irregular in that they undergo a shift in the stem vowel in the simple past but then add regular endings. That is why we refer to them often as "mixed" verbs.
nennen = ich nannte, du nanntest, er nannte
kennen = ich kannte, du kanntest, er kannte
Here is a typical mixed (irregular weak) verb: kennen = to know
ich kannte, du kanntest, er/es/sie kannte, wir kannten, ihr kanntet, sie/Sie kannten
Note that the stem vowel in kennen changed from e to a but that, at the same time the endings are those of a regular verb.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Modals have regular endings in the Simple Past and drop their Umlaut. Take a close look at them:
können = ich konnte
dürfen = ich durfte
mögen = ich mochte
müssen = ich musste
wollen = ich wollte
sollen = ich sollte
Note that since sollen and wollen do not have an Umlaut in their infinitive forms they act just like regular verbs in the simple past.
Let's look at one of the modals fully conjugated!
dürfen (area of meaning: permission)
ich durfte, du durftest, er/es/sie durfte,wir durften, ihr durftet, sie/Sie durften
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In the simple past, the prefix in separable verbs is detached in inflected verbs and placed at the end of the clause.
einkaufen = Er kaufte da immer ein.
aufstehen = Manchmal stand er sehr früh auf.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The past perfect is used to describe an action that has been completed in the past before another action began.
e.g. Ich hatte gelernt (I had learned) - Ich war gekommen (I had come)
German uses the past tense of the auxiliaries sein or haben and the past participle. The construction looks very similar to the present perfect.
The past perfect is formed with the simple past tense of the verb haben - (in a few cases with the verb sein) - and the past participle of the verb. The past participle stands last in the clause.
Ich hatte da sehr oft gearbeitet.
Er hatte so etwas noch nie gekauft.
Er war nie vorher gekommen.
The formation of the past participle is the same as for the present perfect.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The future tense is used in German to describe actions will take place in the future. Often the present tense is used instead. However, when we want to emphasize that the action will take place in the future rather than now, and when there are no other indicators of future time in the sentence, we use the future.
Wir gehen morgen einkaufen. - We'll be going shopping tomorrow.
Wir werden einkaufen gehen. - We will go shopping.
Ich werde mit euch an den Strand fahren. - I will go to the beach with you.
As in English, the future is also used in German to show a strong intention.
Ich werde nächstes Jahr Italienisch lernen. (I intend to learn Italian next year)
The future tense in German is formed with the present tense of the verb werden and the infinitive of the verb that is to express future activity. The infinitive is in final position in the clause.
e.g. Ich werde nächstes Jahr Deutsch studieren.
Don't forget that the present tense of werden is irregular.
werden (i)
ich werde, du wirst, er wird, wir werden, ihr werdet, sie/Sie werden
Note that the d is dropped in the du-form and that the er/es/sie-form ends in d.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
As in English, the future perfect is used in German to describe an action that will have terminated in the future before another action will begin. This use of the future perfect is, however, relatively rare.
Er wird bis acht Uhr gearbeitet haben und dann zu uns kommen.
More commonly the future perfect is used in German to express the probability that somethingwill have taken place by the time the speaker expresses it. Usually wohl or sicher or similar expressions are added to make the situation clearer.
English: He'll probably have done that already.
German: Er wird das sicher schon getan haben.
The future perfect is formed with the present tense of werden, the past participle of the verb, and the infinitive of haben or sein.
Er wird den ganzen Tag gearbeitet haben.
Ich werde nach Hause gekommen sein.
Wir werden unsere Prüfungen geschrieben haben.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In the active voice (e.g. The dog bites me.) the subject (dog) performs an action affecting the object, is active.
In the passive voice the subject is passive (e.g. I am being bitten by the dog). The action is performed by an agent (by the dog).
In German the passive is not used as frequently as in English. English often uses the passive to disguise the agent. e.g. I was asked to do this. In German such a sentence would normally use man (one).
e.g. Man hat mich gebeten, das zu tun.
The passive voice in German is formed with the appropriate tense of the verb werden and the past-participle of the verb.
PRESENT - ich werde gebissen
SIMPLE PAST - ich wurde gebissen
PRESENT PERFECT - ich bin gebissen worden
PAST PERFECT - ich war gebissen worden
FUTURE - ich werde gebissen werden
FUTURE PERFECT - ich werde gebissen worden sein
Note that werden uses a special past-participle (worden) when it is used in the present perfect, the past perfect and the future perfect of the passive voice. In the following examples the active sentences on the left side are transposed to the passive on the right side. Take a close look at what changes do take place. Note that the object (Accusative) of the active sentence becomes the subject (Nominative) in the passive sentence.
Present:
Active: Er schlägt mich.
Passive: Ich werde von ihm geschlagen.
Simple Past:
Active: Er schlug mich.
Passive: Ich wurde von ihm geschlagen.
Present Perfect:
Active: Er hat mich geschlagen.
Passive: Ich bin von ihm geschlagen worden.
Past Perfect:
Active: Er hatte mich geschlagen.
Passive: Ich war von ihm geschlagen worden.
Future:
Active: Er wird mich schlagen
Passive: Ich werde von ihm geschlagen werden
Future Perfect:
Active: Er wird mich geschlagen haben
Passive: Ich werde von ihm geschlagen worden sein
The Agent in a passive sentence is generally expressed by using von with the Dative if they are considered to act on their own volition, and by durch with the Accusative when agents are merely the means through which the action takes place.
e.g. Ich wurde von meiner Mutter geschickt. Er wurde durch die Nachricht betrübt.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Do you remember that there are a number of German verbs that are always followed by the Dative Case? Do you remember which ones they are? Well, in case you don't, here are the most important ones:
antworten - befehlen - begegnen - danken - dienen - folgen - fehlen - gefallen - gelingen - glauben - gehorchen - gehören - helfen - leid tun - passen - passieren - raten - schmecken - verzeihen - weh tun
Many of these verbs may appear in passive constructions. When they do, their dative object must remain in the Dative Case and not be changed to the Nominative as we do in other passive constructions.
Here are some examples of passive constructions involving Dative verbs:
Active: Ich helfe ihm oft. Passive: Ihm wird oft von mir geholfen.
Active: Er tut mir nie weh. Passive: Mir wird nie von ihm weh getan.
Active: Wir raten es euch. Passive: Es wird euch von uns geraten.
Active: Er hat mir gedient. Passive: Mir ist von ihm gedient worden
Active: Er wird mir glauben. Passive: Mir wird von ihm geglaubt werden.
In these examples there are no Nominatives. Instead, the passive recipient of the action is in the Dative Case.
Sometimes the "stand-in" subject es is used in such constructions. We have to pay attention here, but it's not really that hard.
In other words Mir wird von ihm geholfen may also be rendered as: Es wird mir von ihm geholfen
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
German has the ability to form impersonal passive constructions. This is often done when the speaker does not wish to disclose who is performing the action or considers that fact immaterial.
In English we might accomplish that by saying: There was a lot of laughing.
German would express this with an impersonal passive construction:
Es wurde viel gelacht.
Note that the pronoun es is simply acting as a substitute subject.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Modal Auxiliaries are frequently used in the passive voice. Look at some typical constructions.
Active: Man kann es machen. Passive: Es kann gemacht werden.
Active: Wir werden es machen müssen. Passive: Es wird gemacht werden müssen.
Active: Wir haben es machen können. Passive: Es hat gemacht werden können.
Active: Wir konnten es machen. Passive: Es konnte von uns gemacht werden.
The examples show the present, future, present perfect and simple past of this construction. Notice what happens to the modal and to the verb werden in these constructions. It is just what you would expect. Right?
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
here are a number of interesting ways to get around using the passive voice in German. These are very frequently used instead of the passive voice.
The most common "dodge" to the passive is the use of the impersonal pronoun man (one).
e.g. es wurde gemacht > man machte es
sein...zu plus an infinitive is often used to replace passive constructions expressing possibility or necessity.
e.g. man kann es machen > es ist zu machen
sich lassen plus an infinitive can be used to replace a passive construction expressing possibility.
e.g. man kann es machen > es läßt sich machen
Sometimes reflexive constructions are used to replace a passive.
e.g. das wird gemacht > das macht sich
Let's look at a summary of all these alternatives to the passive voice.
Passive Statment: Eine Sprache wird leicht gelernt.
ALTERNATIVES:
Man kann eine Sprache leicht lernen.
Eine Sprache läßt sich leicht lernen.
Eine Sprache ist leicht zu lernen.
Eine Sprache lernt sich leicht.
As you can see, there are many ways to express the same idea.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The subjunctive is used in a number of situations:
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The present-time general subjunctive for regular verbs is identical to the simple past indicative.
ich kaufte, du kauftest, er/es/sie kaufte, wir kauften, ihr kauftet, sie/Sie kauften
The present-time general subjunctive for irregular verbs is also based on the simple past. However, for the subjunctive we add an Umlaut were possible (to a, o, u) and we add special subjunctive endings.
e.g.
Indicative - Present-time Subjunctive
ich kam - ich käme
du kamst - du kämest
er/es/sie kam - er/es/sie käme
wir kamen - wir kämen
ihr kamt - ihr kämet
sie/Sie kamen - sie/Sie kämen
Note that there is an e in all of the endings for the present-time subjunctive.
In the case of the modals, those that have an Umlaut in the infinitive keep it in the present-time subjunctive. The verbs sollen and wollen, however, will look like regular verbs in the present-time general subjunctive (i.e. they will look like the regular simple past tense of these verbs).
e.g.
Indicative - present-time subjunctive
ich konnte - ich könnte
ich durfte - ich dürfte
ich mochte - ich möchte
ich sollte - ich sollte
ich wollte - ich wollte
ich mußte - ich müßte
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The past-time general subjunctive is formed in a manner similar to the present perfect of the indicative.
We use the present-time subjunctive of haben or sein and place the past participle at the end of the clause.
Er hätte es noch gemacht. Er wäre auch gerne mitgekommen.
Incidentally:
Do you remember the present-time general subjunctive of haben and sein?
Just in case you don't, here they are again:
ich hätte du hättest er/es/sie hätte wir hätten ihr hättet sie/Sie hätten
ich wäre du wärest er/es/sie wäre wir wären ihr wäret sie/Sie wären
Here are some examples of the past-time subjunctive in unfulfillable or contary-to-fact conditions:
Er hätte es gemacht, wenn er Zeit gehabt hätte. Es wäre schön gewesen, wenn es möglich gewesen wäre.
With the modals we cannot get around the double-infinitive construction in the past-time subjunctive (i.e. the past participle changes to the infinitive form and is immediately preceded by the dependent infinitive - hence the name "double-infinitive" construction).
Er hätte es machen können, wenn er es hätte tun dürfen.
Study this construction carefully, especially the wenn clause. Note that the hätte occurs before the double infinitive.
Another example:
Wir hätten mehr lernen können, wenn wir mehr hätten lernen wollen
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The würde-construction can be used to replace any subjunctive construction, though sometimes it can be far more cumbersome than the subjunctive itself.
The würde-construction consists of the present-time general subjunctive of werden and the infinitive to express present-time subjunctive. Naturally, this infinitive is placed at the end of the clause.
The present-time würde-construction looks as follows:
ich würde morgen kommen
du würdest morgen kommen
er/es/sie würde morgen kommen
wir würden morgen kommen
ihr würdet morgen kommen
sie/Sie würden morgen kommen
The past-time würde-construction looks as follows:
ich würde gekommen sein
du würdest gekommen sein
er/es/sie würde gekommen sein
wir würden gekommen sein
ihr würdet gekommen sein
sie/Sie würden gekommen sein
ich würde es gemacht haben
du würdest es gemacht haben
er/es/sie würde es gemacht haben
wir würden es gemacht haben
ihr würdet es gemacht haben
sie/Sie würden es gemacht haben
The würde construction is often used in one part of a condition, while the subjunctive is used in the other part.
Ich würde es machen, wenn ich könnte.
Ich würde gekommen sein, wenn ich Geld gehabt hätte.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
After the expressions als ob and als wenn - which both mean as if - the subjunctive is used. The two expressions are always preceded by a comma.
Er sieht aus, als ob er krank wäre.
Er sieht aus, als ob er krank gewesen wäre.
Er sieht aus, als wenn er krank wäre.
Er sieht aus, als wenn er krank gewesen wäre.
It's not that hard, but we do have to watch the tense in the als wenn/als ob clause a little.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The Special Subjunctive is used in the formal reporting of indirect speech. When we report what someone has said, we may use quotations marks to enclose the words of the original speaker:
Jean said: "I will not be able to come to your party tomorrow."
Indirect speech is used when we report what someone else has said without quoting the exact words:
Jean said that she would not be able to come to our party tomorrow.
Note in this example that the verb will changed to would and that the pronoun your to our.
In everyday informal situations, Germans tend to simply use the indicative to report what someone else has said:
Hans hat gesagt, dass er heute nicht kommt.
In more formal situations, you will hear the General Subjunctive being used to report what someone else has said:
Hans hat gesagt, dass er heute nicht käme (or kommen würde).
In formal reporting in lectures, newspapers, magazines and journals and, of course, in literature, the Special Subjunctive is often used:
Hans hat gesagt, dass er heute nicht komme (or kommen werde).
The subjunctive may be used in past, present and future times, depending on the original tense used in the direct quotation. The verb of reporting may be in the past or present depending on the perspective of the speaker.
Examples:
He said: "I will do it eventually." (future) = He said that he would do it eventually.
He said: "I have done that already." (past) = He said that he had done it already.
He said: "I am doing it right now." (present) = He said that he was doing it right now.
Figuring out the correct tenses to use is the trickiest part of rendering indirect speech.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Here are the forms of the Special Subjunctive to express present-time actions and situations:
ich komme, du kommest, er/es/sie komme, wir kommen, ihr kommet, sie/Sie kommen
You will notice that these forms look very similar to the present indicative. In other words, we take the verb stem and add the following endings to it:
ich = e, du = est, er/es/sie = e, wir = en, ihr = et, sie/Sie = en
The present-time Special Subjunctive for sein looks as follows:
ich sei, du seist, er/es/sie sei, wir seien, ihr seiet, sie/Sie seien
The present-time Special Subjunctive for haben looks as follows.
ich habe, du habest, er/es/sie habe, wir haben, ihr habet, sie/Sie haben
The present-time Special Subjunctive for werden looks as follows:
ich werde, du werdest, er/es/sie werde, wir werden, ihr werdet, sie/Sie werden
Some Examples:
Sie sagte: "Ich komme heute nicht." > Sie sagte, sie komme heute nicht.
Er sagt: "Sie hat doch kein Geld." > Er sagt, sie habe doch kein Geld.
In both cases we could have also used the General Subjunctive (...sie käme heute nicht / sie hätte doch kein Geld) or the würde-construction (...sie würde heute nicht kommen).
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The past-time Special Subjunctive is formed with the present-time subjunctive of either haben or sein and the past participle. It is similar in formation to the present perfect indicative.
Er sagt, er habe es gemacht. (his words were: "Ich habe es gemacht.")
Sie sagt, sie sei gegangen. (her words were: "Ich bin gegangen.")
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The future-time Special Subjunctive is formed with the present-time Special Subjunctive of werden and the infinitive of the verb. In structure it looks exactly like the future of the indicative.
Sie sagte, er werde es noch machen (her words were: "Er wird es noch machen."
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The Special Subjunctive is sometimes used in wishes:
Lange lebe der König! Möge er lange leben! Gott sei Dank!
On grave stones we often read:
Sie ruhe in Frieden!
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In German, male beings are usually masculine in gender, and female beings are normally feminine. However, inanimate objects may be either masculine, neuter or feminine.
It is usually best to memorize the gender of nouns. However, there are some general guidelines that may be useful to make an intelligent guesses about unknown words.
Masculine Words:
Male persons (except dimunitives), animals days of the week, months and seasons, alcoholic beverage (but: das Bier!), geographical directions and most phenomena connected to the weather.
Nouns ending in -ig -ing -ast -m (usually), -er when derived from a verb, nouns derived from the stem of a strong (irregular) verb and not end in -t or -e.
Neuter Words:
Diminutives (signaled by the sufix -chen or -lein) generic animal names that includes both sexes, cities, countries (but: die Schweiz, die Türkei, die Tschechoslowakei, die USA (plural), metals (but: der Stahl), letters of the alphabet, colours, languages, an abstract idea derived from an adjective.
Nouns ending in -um -tum (but: der Reichtum, der Irrtum), nouns ending -en that are derived from a verb, (other nouns ending in -en tend to be masculine.).
Femine Words
female persons (except dimunitives like Mädchen, Fräulein), female animals, names of fruits (but: der Apfel, das Ananas), names of flowers and trees, names of a rivers (but: der Rhein, der Main, der Neckar, der Inn) numbers used as a nouns.
Nouns ending in -ei -ie -in -ion -ik -tät -heit -keit -schaft -ung, -e when the word has two syllables (except das Auge, das Ende, der Käse, der Name, der Glaube, and male persons or animals), -t or -e when the noun is derived from a strong verb stem.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The cases of nouns denote their function in a clause. There are four cases in German:
The Nominative Case
denotes the subject or agent of the clause (whatever it is that does what the verb expresses)
Die Frau gibt dem Mann das Buch des Nachbarn. (Die Frau = the subject/nominative)
The Accusative Case
denotes the direct object of the clause (recipient of the action expressed in the verb)
Die Frau gibt dem Mann das Buch des Nachbarn, (das Buch = the direct object/accusative)
The Dative Case
denotes the indirect object of the clause (the beneficiary of what subject does with verb to object)
Die Frau gibt dem Mann das Buch des Nachbarn. (dem Mann = the indirect object/dative)
The Genitive Case
denotes the possessive or shows relationship (English signals 's or of the)
Die Frau gibt dem Mann das Buch des Nachbarn (des Nachbarn = the possessive/genitive)
Assigned cases are also used with prepositions.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The forms for the Nominative Case for der, der-words (e.g. dieser), ein and ein-words (e.g. unser) are:
Masculine: der Mann, dieser Mann - ein Mann, unser Mann
Neuter: das Boot, dieses Boot - ein Boot, unser Boot
Feminine: die Frau, diese Frau - eine Frau, unsere Frau
Plural: die Frauen, diese Frauen - keine Frauen, unsere Frauen
We can see that in the Nominative Case the endings for der and ein and der and ein-words are the same for the feminine only. In the masculine and neuter they are dissimilar.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The forms for the Accusative Case for der, der-words (e.g. dieser), ein and ein-words (e.g. unser) are:
Masculine: den Mann, diesen Mann - einen Mann, unseren Mann
Neuter: das Boot, dieses Boot - ein Boot, unser Boot
Feminine: die Frau, diese Frau - eine Frau, unsere Frau
Plural: die Frauen, diese Frauen - keine Frauen, unsere Frauen
Only the masculine changes its form from the Nominative to the Accusative case.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The forms for the Dative Case for der, der-words (e.g. dieser), ein and ein-words (e.g. unser) are:
Masculine: dem Mann, diesem Mann - einem Mann, unserem Mann
Neuter: dem Boot, diesem Boot - einem Boot, unserem Boot
Feminine: der Frau, dieser Frau - einer Frau, unserer Frau
Plural: den Frauen, diesen Frauen - keinen Frauen, unseren Frauen
In the Dative plural, all nouns that do not already end in n or end in s must add n or en (e.g. den Leuten)
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The forms for the Genitive Case for der, der-words (e.g. dieser), ein and ein-words (e.g. unser) are:
Masculine: des Mann(e)s, dieses Mann(e)s - eines Mann(e)s, unseres Mann(e)s
Neuter: des Boots, dieses Boots - eines Boots, unseres Boots
Feminine: der Frau, dieser Frau - einer Frau, unserer Frau
Plural: der Frauen, dieser Frauen - keiner Frauen, unserer Frauen
Note that in the masculine and the neuter nouns must add an s (except for N-nouns - des Herrn, des Kollegen)
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Here is an overview of all the cases:
| CASE: | masculine | neuter | feminine | plural |
| Nominative |
der Mann ein Mann |
das Auto ein Auto |
die Frau eine Frau |
die Leute keine Leute |
| Accusative |
den Mann einen Mann |
das Auto ein Auto |
die Frau eine Frau |
die Leute keine Leute |
| Dative |
dem Mann einem Mann |
dem Auto einem Auto |
der Frau einer Frau |
den Frauen keinen Frauen |
| Genitive |
des Mannes eines Mannes |
des Autos eines Autos |
der Frau einer Frau |
der Frauen keiner Frauen |
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Der-words are words that behave like the definite article der. They change their form in a similar fashion.
The der-words are: dieser, jeder, jener, mancher, solcher, welcher, alle (pl.)
Thus, der = dieser, den = diesen, dem = diesem, des = dieses, die = diese
Examples: Kennst du diesen Mann? Für welches Kind ist das? Alle Kollegen kommen mit.
Ein-words are words that add the same endings as the indefinite article ein.
The ein-words are: kein, mein, dein, sein, ihr, unser, euer, Ihr
Thus, ein = unser, eine= unsere, einen = unseren, einer = unserer, einem = unserem, eines = unseres
Examples: Wir sehen unser Auto. Das ist für unseren Lehrer. Er kommt mit einem Freund.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Pronouns are parts of speech that represent nouns. Their behaviour is very similar to nouns. They change their form according to gender, number and case.
There are personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns and relative pronouns.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Like nouns, the pronouns have cases:
Nominative: ich, du, er, es, sie, wir, ihr, sie, Sie
Accusative: mich, dich, ihn, es, sie, uns, euch, sie, Sie
Dative: mir, dir, ihm, ihm, ihm, ihr, uns, euch, ihnen, Ihnen
The use of these pronouns is identical with the use of nouns.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Here is a chart showing you all the pronouns in a glance:
| Nominative | ich | du | er | es | sie | wir | ihr | sie / Sie |
| Accusative | mich | dich | ihn | es | sie | uns | euch | sie / Sie |
| Dative | mir | dir | ihm | ihm | ihr | uns | euch | ihnen / Ihnen |
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that refer back to the subject of the clause.
The pronoun (ihn) in the following example is not reflexive:
1. Sie sieht mich. (She [subject] sees me [object]).
In the next example the pronouns (mich) is reflexive:
2. Ich sehe mich im Spiegel. (I [subject] see me [object]).
In example one, the subject and object (she and me) are not the same thing or person. In example two, however, the subject and object (I and me) are the same person.
Reflexive pronouns are identical to the personal pronouns already discussed, except in the third person, singular (er/es/sie) and plural (sie) and the polite form (Sie) where the reflexive pronoun is sich.
Reflexive pronouns will be in either the Dative or Accusative case, depending on their function in the clause. Look at these examples:
Ich sehe mich im Spiegel. (mich = accusative - I see myself in the mirror - "myself" is the direct object)
Ich kaufe mir ein Buch. (mir = dative - I am buying myself a book - "a book" is the direct object)
Ich helfe mir oft selbst. (mir = dative = I often help myself - helfen is a dative verb)
Here is an overview:
| Accusative: | mich | dich | ihn | es | sie | uns | euch | sie | Sie |
| Dative: | mir | dir | ihm | ihm | ihr | uns | euch | ihnen | Ihnen |
Note that the pronouns are in the order of : I, you, he, it, she, we you, they, you (pol.)
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Relative pronouns (in English: who, whose, whom,which, what or that) introduce relative clauses. Relative clauses give information about nouns or pronouns in a clause. Look at these English examples:
The man whom you see is my brother.
Here is the student about whom I told you.
The man who did that has escaped.
The highlighted words are the relative clauses. These clauses give specific information about the nouns in these sentences much more specific. In the last example, for instance, we are not talking about any man, but a particular one, namely the one who did that.
Sometimes we omit the relative pronoun in English.
e.g. The man you see is my brother.
In German the relative pronoun must always be expressed.
e.g. Der Mann, den du siehst, ist mein Bruder
What are the relative pronouns in German?
As we will see, they are very closely related to der, das and die. Let's have a closer look at them!
| Case | masculine | neuter | feminine | plural |
| Nominative: | der | das | die | die |
| Accusative: | den | das | die | die |
| Dative: | dem | dem | der | denen |
| Genitive: | dessen | dessen | deren | deren |
Notice that the relative pronouns are identical to the definite article in form except in the Dative plural and throughout the Genitive Case singular and plural.
Once we know the forms of the relative pronouns we have to figure out how to use them. Here is how:
Let's look again at the examples given at the beginning:
The man whom you see is my brother.
Here is the student about whom I told you.
The man who did that has escaped.
In the first example we look at whom and ask what it refers to. The answer is: a masculine, singular noun - man. We then ask what function the pronoun serves in its own clause and we discover that it is the direct object (Accusative).
Therefore the correct form of the relative pronoun will be masculine, singular, accusative = den
By the same analysis we discover that about whom in the second example will be either von dem or über den depending on which preposition we use and who in the third example will be der.
So, remember:
We look back to the antecedent (the noun or pronoun the relative pronoun refers to) to determine the gender and the number (singular or plural) of the relative pronoun.
Then we look at the grammatical function of the pronoun within its own clause to determine the case.
Don't forget:
In German the relative pronoun is never omitted! Relative clauses are dependent clauses which means that the verb must be placed at the end of the clause. Relative clauses, like most clauses in German, are marked off by commas.
Here are some examples of relative pronouns and clauses:
ENGLISH
1) The man whom you see is my brother.
(or: The man you see is my brother.)
2) He knows the girl whose mother often shops here.
3) The kids who did that live there.
GERMAN
1) Der Mann, den du siehst, ist mein
Bruder.
2) Er kennt das Mädchen, dessen Mutter hier oft einkauft.
3) Die Kinder, die das gemacht haben, wohnen hier.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Predicate adjectives (those following the noun they modify) take no endings.
Examples:
der Mann ist nett, die Frau ist nett,das Kind ist nett, die Frauen sind nett
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Attributive Adjectives precede the nound and they take endings which are determined by what precedes them (i.e. a "der-word" or an "ein-word" or nothing).
Examples:
das ist ein nettes Kind, ich sehe das nette Kind, anstatt eines netten Kindes
Let us take a close look at the attributive adjective endings after "der-words" and "ein-words":
| Case: | masculine | neuter | feminine |
| Nominative: |
der nette Mann ein netter Mann |
das nette Kind ein nettes Kind |
die nette Frau eine nette Frau |
| Accusative: |
den netten Mann einen netten Mann |
das nette Kind ein nettes Kind |
die nette Frau eine nette Frau |
| Dative: |
dem netten Mann einem netten Mann |
dem netten Kind einem netten Kind |
der netten Frau einer netten Frau |
| Genitive: |
des netten Mannes eines netten Mannes |
des netten Kindes eines netten Kindes |
der netten Frau einer netten Frau |
At first the adjective endings may look very complicated. However, consider these facts:
In the plural the attributive endings after "der-words" and "ein-words" are as follows:
| Nominative: |
die netten Leute keine netten Leute |
| Accusative: |
die netten Leute keine netten Leute |
| Dative: |
den netten Leuten keinen netten Leuten |
| Genitive: |
der netten Leute keiner netten Leute |
In other words, in the plural the attributive adjective ending after "der-words" and "ein-words" is always EN.
To summarize:
Attributive endings after der- and ein-words are as follows:
after der - e [gute] (masculine, singular), en [guten] (feminine, singular), en [guten] (plural)
after das - e [gute] (neuter, singular)
after die - e [gute] (feminine, singular), en [guten] (plural)
after den - en [guten]
after dem - en [guten]
after des - en [guten]
after kein - er [guter] (masculine, singular), es [gutes] (neuter, singular)
after keine - e [gute] (feminine, singular), en [guten] (plural)
after keinen - en [guten]
after keinem - en [guten]
after keines - en [guten]
after keiner - en [guten]
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
When an attributive adjective is not preceded by a "der-word" or an "ein-word" it is called an unpreceded adjective.
For unpreceded attributive adjectives the endings (with the exception of the masculine and neuter Genitive) are the "der-word" (or "dieser-word") endings.
Let's have a look at those endings.
Here are unpreceded adjective endings:
| Case: | masculine | neuter | feminine | plural |
| Nominative: | guter Wein | gutes Bier | gute Milch | gute Kinder |
| Accusative: | guten Wein | gutes Bier | gute Milch | gute Kinder |
| Dative: | gutem Wein | gutem Bier | guter Milch | guten Kindern |
| Genitive: | guten Weins | guten Biers | guter Milch | guter Kinder |
As long as we remember what the "der-word" endings are, we have no problems with unpreceded attributive adjectives. However, watch out for the masculine and neuter Genitive! Think en!
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
For the comparative of the adjective in English we add either er or the word more to the base form of adjectives.
Examples:
She is nicer than my sister.
She is more beautiful than my sister.
In German we always add er to the base form. When we use the adjective attributively we must also add the appropriate ending.
Examples:
Sie ist netter als meine Schwester
Sie ist schöner als meine Schwester
Sie ist das nettere Mädchen
Sie ist das schönere Mädchen
For the superlative of the adjective in English we add either (e)st or the word most to the base form of the adjective.
Examples:
She is the nicest girl in the class
She is the most beautiful girl in the class
In German we always add st or est if the noun ends in a t or d or a consonant cluster (three or more consonants in a series). When we use the adjective attributively, we must also add the appropriate adjective ending.
Examples:
Sie ist das netteste Mädchen in der Klasse
Sie ist das schönste Mädchen in der Klasse
Actually, it is not that complicated. However, don't forget that there are some irregular forms too.
Remember what they are?
BASE FORM - COMPARATIVE - SUPERLATIVE
gut, besser, best-
hoch, höher, höchst-
nah, näher, nächst-
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The comparative of adverbs is similar to that of the predicate adjective. In English we add er or more to the adverb.
Examples:
She sings better.
She sings more beautifully.
In German we always add er
Examples:
Sie singt besser.
Sie singt schöner.
Remember that an Umlaut is sometimes added as well as in er kommt öfter!
The superlative of adverbs in English is formed by adding the . . . (e)st or most . . . ly to the adverb.
Examples:
She sings best.
She sings the most beautifully.
In German we use the invariable expression am...sten with the adverb. When the stem ends in t, d or a consonant cluster (three or more consonants in a series) we use the expression am...esten.
Examples:
Sie singt am besten.
Sie singt am lautesten.
Remember that an Umlaut is sometimes added as in "er kommt am öftesten").
Of course, as always, there are some irregular forms. Remember these?
BASE FORM - COMPARATIVE - SUPERLATIVE
gern, lieber, am liebsten
gut, besser, am besten
hoch, höher, am höchsten
nah, näher, am nächsten
viel, mehr, am meisten
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
We may change an attributive adjective into a noun by capitalizing it. The ending remains the same as for the attributive adjective.
Examples:
Attributive Adjective:
Ein alter Mann ist an der Tür.
Der alte Mann ist an der Tür.
Adjectival Noun:
Ein Alter ist an der Tür.
Der Alte ist an der Tür.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In German, both present participle and past participles may be used as adjectives. When used in this way they add the appropriate attributive endings.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE:
Sehen Sie das schlafende Kind?
Was machen wir mit dem weinenden Kind?
PAST PARTICIPLE:
Wir haben einen gebrauchten Wagen.
Hier sind die gekochten Kartoffeln.
As long as we remember the correct attributive adjective endings, we'll have no problems.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The prepositions bis, durch, entlang (follows its object), für, gegen, ohne, um are always followed by an accusative object. Note that the preposition entlang follows its accusative object.
Examples:
Er macht das für seinen Vater.
Ohne meinen Bleistift kann ich nicht schreiben.
Er geht dann den Weg entlang.
Für einen Freund gehe ich durchs Feuer.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The following prepositions are used with the Dative case:
aus, außer, bei, gegenüber (follows its object), mit, nach, seit, von, zu
Here are some examples of prepositions used with the Dative case:
Er kommt bald aus dem Haus.
Sie wohnt jetzt bei uns.
Dem Haus gegenüber steht ein Baum.
Nach langer Zeit kam sie auch mit.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
A number of prepositions may be followed either by the dative case or by the accusative case, depending on the precise meaning.
For example, the prepositions in (position within) and into (motion to) have only one equivalent in German: in.
When in (position) is meant, then German uses in + dative.
When into (motion) is meant, then German uses in + accusative.
There are nine prepositions in German that may take either the dative or accusative case for the same reasons.
Here are the Dative/Accusative Prepositions (sometimes also called the "Either-or" or "Two-way" prepositions).
When they answer the question wo? (where, in what place?) they are followed by the dative case.
When they answer the questions woher? (from where?) or wohin? (where to?) they are followed by the accusative case.
DATIVE/ACCUSATIVE PREPOSITIONS:
an, auf, hinter, in, neben, über, unter, vor, zwischen
We have to pay close attention when we use these prepositions, but they are not at all difficult to use.
Here are some examples:
Ich bin im Wohnzimmer. (Dative - wo?)
Wann kommst du ins Wohnzimmer? (Accusative - wohin?)
Ich lege das Buch neben das Regal. (Accusative - wohin?)
Jetzt liegt das Buch neben dem Regal. (Dative - wo?)
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
The most common prepositions used with the Genitive Case are:
anstatt [or: statt], trotz, während, wegen, außerhalb/innerhalb, diesseits/jenseits oberhalb/unterhalb
Examples:
Trotz des schlechten Wetters gingen sie spazieren
Während des Sturmes blieben wir im Hotel.
Oberhalb meines Fensters baut eine Schwalbe ein Nest.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Sometimes prepositions are used figuratively in that they do not refer to spatial relationships. When we say in English that "she is waiting on tables in a restaurant" we do not mean that she is waiting in a restaurant sitting or standing on tables. The prepositon on is therefore used figuratively. German often uses prepositions in the same figurative way.
Thus, the German sentence Er wartet auf seinen Freund means, of course, that he is waiting for his friend and not on top of him.
Here are some examples of common prepositions used figuratively:
an der Reihe sein (Reihe = Dat.), Angst haben vor (+ Dat.), antworten auf (+ Accus.), denken an (+ Accus.), diskutieren über (+Accus.), gehen an (+ Accus.), gehen auf (+ Accus.), lachen über (+ Accus.), schreiben an (+ Accus.), sprechen über (+ Accus.), studieren an (+ Dat.), warten auf (+ Accus.), wohnen auf (+ Dat.)
Examples:
Ich habe Angst vor ihm.
Sie antwortet auf meine Frage.
Ich denke viel an dich.
Wir warten schon lange auf ihn.
There are many other figurative uses of prepositions like those shown. Watch your vocabulary lists for them! All but the smallest of dictionaries give examples.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In German word order in statements, the inflected verb is usually in second place. It is often preceded by the subject.
Example:
Er geht gerne einkaufen.
To emphasize a certain word or phrase, the speaker may place it before the inflected verb at the beginning of the sentence. When this is done, the verb must remain in second place and the subject must follow it. Only one element may precede the inflected verb
Examples:
Morgen geht er einkaufen.
Bei schönem Wetter gehen wir oft spazieren.
Questions may be asked in German using three different approaches:
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Independent clauses are clauses that make complete statements and do not need elements outside the clause to complete them.
Example:
Das Wetter ist schön.
Clauses introduced by coordinating conjunctions (aber, denn, sondern, weil, wenn, und) are also independent clauses
Das Wetter ist schön, und wir machen sicher wieder einen Ausflug.
Note that after the conjunctions aber, denn, sondern, weil, wenn, and und the word order of the clause following is not affected.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Dependent clauses, as their name indicates, do not make complete statements and are dependent on some other element in the sentence for their proper meaning.
The clause that he is here, for instance, is meaningless until we look at elements outside the clause to find the clause I am happy.
The sentence I am happy, that he is here. makes perfect sense. The clause That he is here is a dependent clause.
Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions.
The German version of the example we just looked at is: Ich freue mich, dass er hier ist.
The conjunction dass is a subordinating conjunctions.
Many elements (such as relative pronouns and questions words, for instance) may act like subordinating conjunctions as well.
Example:
Niemand weiß, woher er gekommen ist.
Der Mann, den ich meine, hat das aber nicht gesagt.
It is useful to memorize the most frequently encountered subordinating conjunctions. They are:
als, als ob, anstatt dass, bevor, bis, da, damit, dass, ehe, falls, indem, nachdem, ob, bogleich, obschon, obwohl, ohne dass, seit(dem), sobald, so dass, solange, sooft, während, weil, wenn
Examples:
Wir wussten es gleich, als er bei uns ankam.
Wir bleiben zu Hause, obschon es heute wirklich sehr schön ist.
Lass mich erst ausreden, bevor du damit anfängst.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Indirect statements and questions generally use the subjunctive (either general or special). The principles of indirect discourse apply.
Indirect statement are usually introduced by dass. The dass may be omitted and the word order remains unaffected.
Example:
Er sagte, dass sie heute nicht kommen könnte. (or könne).
Er sagte, sie könnte (or könne) heute nicht kommen.
Specific questions (those beginning with a question word) will have the inflected verb in the reported clause at the end of the clause.
Er fragte, wann wir morgen kommen könnten.
However, general questions - those not beginning with a question word (such as wer, wo, wie) are introduced by the word ob and are dependent clauses (i.e. the verb is placed at the end of the clause).
ob can be translated as whether or if (in the sense of whether).
Here is an example:
DIRECT QUESTION:
Er fragt: "Hat sie heute Zeit?"
INDIRECT QUESTION:
Er fragt, ob sie heute Zeit hätte. Or: Er fragt, ob sie heute Zeit habe.
When the question begins with a question word (such as wer, wo, wie) the indirect question is also introduced by that question word and the verb is placed at the end of the clause.
DIRECT QUESTION: Er fragt: "Wann hat sie Zeit?"
INDIRECT QUESTION: Er fragt, wann sie Zeit hätte.
Or: Er fragt, wann sie Zeit habe.
As in indirect statements, we have to watch our tenses carefully!
If Erna asked "is he coming today?" we will use the present-time subjunctive (either general or special).
If Erna asked "will he be coming today?" we will use the future-time subjunctive (either general or special).
If Erna asked "did he come today?" we will use the past-time subjunctive (either general or special).
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Like indirect statements and questions, indirect commands use the general or special subjunctive.
An indirect command uses the appropriate subjunctive tense of the verb sollen. German is similar to English in this aspect.
Let's first look at the situation in English:
DIRECT COMMAND: He said: "Do it
now!"
INDIRECT COMMAND: He said that I should do
it now.
In German the transposition is very similar.
DIRECT COMMAND: Er sagte: "Mache
es jetzt!"
INDIRECT COMMAND: Er sagte, ich sollte es
jetzt machen.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Dependent infinitives with modals (können, dürfen, mögen, wollen, müssen, sollen) and the verbs hören and sehen and other verbs of perception, as well as with the verb lassen are placed at the end of the clause. No zu is required.
Examples:
Ich kann heute nicht mehr viel arbeiten.
Er muss es bald machen.
Ich höre ihn jeden Morgen nach Hause kommen.
Wir lassen das Auto reparieren.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
When we use these verbs in the present perfect and there is no dependent infinitive, their past-participles are as follows:
können - gekonnt
dürfen - gedurft
müssen - gemusst
sollen - gesollt
mögen - gemocht
wollen - gewollt
hören - gehört
sehen - gesehen
lassen - gelassen
When the modals, hören, sehen and lassen are used in the present perfect or the past-time subjunctive, they will remain in the infinitive form and are immediately preceded by the infinitive - hence we talk of the double infinitive contruction.
Here are some examples:
Er hat es gekonnt (no
dependent infinitive)
Er hat es tun können (dependent infinitive
tun)
Ich habe ihn gehört (no
dependent infinitive)
Ich habe ihn kommen hören (dependent
infinitive kommen)
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
As we have seen, the dependent infinitive for modals and the verbs hören, sehen (and certain other verbs of perception such as fühlen) and lassen are placed at the end of the clause.
Examples:
Ich sehe ihn manchmal morgens kommen.
Er muss es noch heute abend machen.
For all other verbs the dependent infinitive is not only placed at the end of the clause but is also preceded by the word zu.
Examples:
Er hofft es noch heute zu machen.
Wir brauchen es wirklich nicht zu tun.
There are also many expressions that incorporate the "zu-construction".
Zeit haben, ...zu - Wir haben keine Zeit, das zu tun.
Lust haben, ...zu - Hast du Lust, ein Bier zu trinken?
Schön sein, ...zu - Es ist schön, am Wochenende nichts
zu tun.
Separable prefixes precede the zu, so that we get constructions
like:
zumachen: Er hofft, die Tür zuzumachen.
einkaufen: Es ist nötig einzukaufen.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
the constructions um...zu, (an)statt...zu and ohne...zu the dependent infinitive, preceded by zu, is placed at the end of the clause.
Examples:
Man muss viel studieren, um gut Deutsch zu sprechen.
Man sieht oft fern, anstatt zu studieren.
Man kann nichts lernen, ohne Zeit dafür zu haben.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Whereas in English we are restricted in our ability to add modifiers before a noun and usually have to use a subordinate clause to add a significant amount of information to a noun, German is able to incorporate quite a bit of information Through the use of the so-called "pre-noun insert" or "extended modifier".
Look at the following problems:
We can readily translate expressions such as:
das wartende Kind as the waiting child
der lächelnde Mann as the smiling man
However, translation becomes a bit more complicated when we look at the construction:
die schon lange vor dem Haus wartende Frau
It is perhaps best translated as: the woman who had been waiting for a long time in front of the house
As we can see, in German it is possible to place quite a bit of information about the noun before it.
As the examples show, present and past participles with the correct adjective ending are usually seen in the extended modifier construction.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Cardinal numbers (i.e. one, two, three) in German do not add adjective endings except for "ein" (as "a" or "an").
Example:
Wir haben zwei Bäume in unserem Garten.
Mit zwei Bäumen ist der Garten voll.
Ordinal numbers (i.e. first, second, third) add attributive adjective endings.
Examples:
Am ersten Januar muß ich nach Deutschland fliegen.
Heute ist der erste Januar.
Heute haben wir den ersten Januar.
The Ordinal Numbers from 1 to 25 are as follows. The dash after the number indicates that an appropriate adjective ending must be added:
erst-, zweit-, dritt-, viert-, fünft-, sechst-, siebent-, acht-, neunt-, zehnt-, elft-, zwölft-, dreizehnt-, vierzehnt-, fünfzehnt-, sechzehnt-, siebzehnt-, achtzehnt-, neunzehnt-, zwanzigst-, einundzwanzigst-, zweiundzwanzigst-, dreiundzwanzigst-, vierundzwanzigst-, fünfundzwanzigst-
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
In German, the numbers 1 to 12 have to be memorized
Here they are:
| 1 | eins | 4 | vier | 7 | sieben | 10 | zehn |
| 2 | zwei | 5 | fünf | 8 | acht | 11 | elf |
| 3 | drei | 6 | sechs | 9 | neun | 12 | zwölf |
All other numbers up to twenty (zwanzig) are a combination of these numbers.
e.g. 13 = dreizehn, 14 = vierzehn, 15 = fünfzehn, 16 = sechzehn, 17 = siebzehn, 18 = achtzehn, 19 = neunzehn
Then, the following have to be memorized:
20 = zwanzig, 30 = dreißig , 40 = vierzig, 50 = fünfzig, 60 = sechzig, 70 = siebzig, 80 = achtzig, 90 = neunzig,
100 = (ein)hundert, 200 = zweihundert, 300 = dreihundert, 400 = vierhundert etc.
Now we simply combine the numbers with und
The number 21 would therefore be einundzwanzig, the number 22 zweiundzwanzig etc.
422 would be vierhundertzweiundzwanzig, 598 would be fünfhundertachtundneunzig etc.
Then we get:
1000 = (ein)tausend, 2000 = zweitausend, 3000 = dreitausend, 4000 = viertausend etc.
thus,
1001 = tausendeins, 1002 = tausendzwei,
1101 = tausend hunderteins, 2222 = zweitausend zweihundertzweiundzwanzig
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Here are some guidelines on the most important features of the new German orthography. For a detailed treatment of theses topics, consult the Home Page on Rechtschreibung of the Institut für Deutsche Sprache.
Capitalization
All words used as nouns are capitalized (e.g. der Einzelne).
In letters, Sie, Ihr, Ihnen etc. remain capital, du, dein, euch, euer etc. are lower case.
After heute, morgen, gestern nouns are capitalized (e.g. heute Morgen).
Important Spelling Changes
Word families retain the stem vowel (e.g. Hand, behände; Band, Bändel). The word Eltern is still spelled Eltern though.
After short vowels, ß is replaced by ss, after long vowels and diphtongs (ai, ei, eu, ie, au äu) ß is retained. Therefore, ich weiß but ihr wisst and ich muss, ihr müsst. Most notably daß is now spelled dass.
Compound nouns retain all consonants: Schifffahrt, Baletttournee.
Writing compounds separately or together
Normally compound expressions are written separately. Wir müssen Staub saugen. - Wie viel kostet das? So viel ich weiß..
Compound infinitives are written as individual words. e.g. Ich möchte sie kennen lernen.
Separabale expressions retain capitaliztion for nouns. Ich fahre Rad, ich bin Rad gefahren.
All numbers under one million are spelled as one word: hundertneunundzwanzig.
The word etwas is combined with the following word: irgendetwas, irgendjemand.
Hyphenation
In addition to the current rules for hyphenation, new rules are effective.
Words are devided by syllables as in spoken speech (a-ber, spe-ziell).
Single syllables may stand at the end but not at the beginning of a line (a-ber).
The cluster st is now divided as s-t (bes-tens).
The clusters ck, ch, sch, th, sh, rh are no longer separated and begin the next syllable: A-cker, ha-cken, but Deutsch-land (compound noun).
Avoid hyphenation that makes reading difficult (e.g. Sprecher-ziehung).
Hyphens are now used much more commonly and also after numbers: 3-jährig.
Punctuation
Omit commas before und and aber unless the sense becomes obscure.
Commas before participial phrases have become optional (either Ich hoffe mich mit dir zu treffen or Ich hoffe, mich mit dir zu treffen).
Enclose all quotes in commas.
[Table of Contents] [Glossary]
Accusative Case: The case that denotes the direct object of the verb (e.g. Ich sehe den Mann). Also used with the prepositions: durch, für, gegen, entlang, ohne, um
Active Voice: The subject is the performer of the action (Er schreibt den Brief)
Adjective: A descriptive word that describes the properties of a noun (Das schöne Schloss)
Adverb: A descriptive word that modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb (Er singt schön, Das sehr schöne Schloss ist beliebt, Er läuft wirklich schnell)
Agreement: The correct correspondence between parts of speech such as between subject and verb or adjective and noun
Antecedent: Parts of speech that have just been mentioned and are now referred to. (The man whom you see is my father - the man is the antecedent of "whom")
Attributive Adjective: Adjectives that precede the noun they modify. They have endings
Auxiliary Verbs: These are literally helping verbs such as modals, sein and haben and werden (Ich muss es machen, Ich habe es gemacht, Ich bin gekommen, Ich werde es tun)
Cardinal Number: The counting numbers we use to tell how many items there are (eins, zwei, drei, vier, fünf ...)
Case: The function of a noun or pronoun. Case shows whether these parts of speech are the subject, object, indirect object or possessive. German has four cases: Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Genitive
Clause: The smallest possible unit of a sentence. Often a sentence has only one clause (Er kommt nach Hause)
Coordinating Conjunction: The conjunctions aber, denn, sondern, and und. They do not affect the word order
Comparative: The form of the adjective or adverb that is used to compare two or more things (Sie ist größer als er, Er fährt schneller als ich)
Compound: A combination of two or more nouns, verbs etc. (Hauptpostamt, kennen lernen)
Conjunction: Words that connect clauses (Ich weiß, dass er heute kommt)
Dative Case: The indirect object of the sentence that denotes the beneficiary of what the subject does with the verb to the object (e.g. Ich kaufe ihm das Buch). The Dative is also used after the prepositions aus, außer, bei, mit, nach, seit, von, zu
Definite Article: The articles der, das, die and their various forms
Dependent Clause: A clause that depends on outside elements to be complete (e.g. dass er hier ist, ob er kann)
Dependent Infinitive: The infinitive that is used with a finite verb and stands at the end of the clause (Ich kann es vielleicht machen, Ich werde morgen kommen)
Der-Words: These are words that change their endings in a similar fashion to the definite article (dieser, jener, jeder, solcher, welcher, mancher, alle)
Ein-Words: These are the possessives (mein, dein, sein, ihr, unser, euer, ihr, Ihr) and kein. Ein-words add the same endings as ein (eine = meine, einer = unserer)
Extended Adjective: see pre-noun inserts
Finite Verb: The verb that has a subject and an ending (Ich will es machen, Ich gehe, Ich bin gekommen)
Gender: Gender denotes whether a noun is masculine (der), neuter (das) or feminine (die)
Genitive Case: The case of nouns and pronouns which shows possession or relationship (Ich wohne im Haus meiner Mutter, Peters Buch liegt hier, Das Dach unseres Hauses ist kaputt)
Imperative Mood: This mood is used to make requests, give orders or commands (Geh in die Küche!, Kommen Sie bitte um zwei)
Independent Clause: A clause that expresses a self-contained complete idea (Er singt schön.)
Infinitive: The base form of the verb that is listed in dictionaries and word lists (lernen, machen, tun, wandern, sein)
Interrogative Pronouns: Question words such as wer
Object: The case that denotes the noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb. There are direct and indirect objects (Ich sehe ihn, Ich kaufe ihm ein Auto)
Ordinal Number: Numbers that show a definite order (erst-, zweit-, dritt-)
Mixed Verb: Irregular weak verbs, in other words, verbs that display characteristics of both irregular and regular verbs. They show a stem change but exhibit a regular ending (Es brannte gestern)
Modal Verbs: These are auxiliary verbs that show the mode (attitude) with which things are performed. The modals are: können, dürfen, müssen, sollen, wollen, mögen
Modifier: Part of speech that qualifies or describes another, such as adjectives and adverbs
Mood: Refers to whether a statement is in the subjunctive or indicative, interrogative, or the imperative
Nominative Case: The case that shows the subject of a clause. The subject is the agent that causes the verb to do what it does (Er macht es.)
Noun: That part of speech that names persons, animals, things, places, ideas, and quality. German nouns have gender (masculine, neuter, feminine - der, das die), and show case (Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Genitive). They can be singular or plural. Nouns are listed in dictionaries and word lists in the nominative.
Number: Number refers to whether a noun or pronoun is in the singular or plural
Participle: A form of the verb used either as an adjective or to form compound tenses. The present participle is formed by adding d to the infinitive (Sie hört das weinende Kind nicht, Das fehlende Handtuch warschmutzig), the past participle usually has the prefix ge and ends in t, et or en (Sie hat es gehört, Er ist gekommen) but sometimes there is no ge (Ich habe studiert).
Part of Speech: The individual elements of a clause such as nouns, pronouns, adjectives
Passive Voice: In the passive voice the subject is the recipient of the action (Ich wurde von einem Hund gebissen)
Past Participle: A form of the verb used either as an adjective or to form compound tenses. The past participle usually has the prefix ge and ends in t, et or en (Sie hat es gehört, Er ist gekommen) but sometimes there is no ge (Ich habe studiert).
Personal Pronouns: the pronouns ich, du, er, es, sie, wir, ihr, sie/Sie
Phrase: Two or more words conveying a coherent thought not containing a subject and verb
Possessive Case: see genitive
Possessive Pronouns: These are the ein-words: mein, dein, sein, ihr, unser, euer, Ihr
Predicate Adjective: An adjective that is separated from the noun it modifies by a verb. It has no endings (Das Haus ist schön.)
Pre-Noun Inserts: Extended phrases involving adjectives, adverbs, verbs, nouns etc. that modify a noun. German has the ability to include quite a bit of information in these phrases that stand before the noun they modify. English must usually substitute a subordinate clause (Die schon seit ziemlich langer Zeit wartende Frau ging plötzlich weg)
Preposition: Prepositions are connecting words that show the relationships between parts of speech (e.g. Er geht durch den Garten)
Prepositional Phrase: A phrase introduced by a preposition (in das neue Haus)
Predicate Nominative: This condition occurs with selected verbs such as sein, heißen, werden. The noun after these verbs is the Predicate Noun and is in the Nominative. The Predicate Noun and the subject of a clause are identical (Ich bin ein kleiner Mensch)
Pronoun: The part of speech that is substituted for the noun (der Mann = er, das Haus = es, die Frau = sie, die Leute = sie). Pronouns act exactly like nouns
Reflexive Pronoun: A pronoun that refers back to the subject of the verb of which it is the object (Ich sehe mich im Spiegel, Ich kaufe mir Aspirin)
Relative Clause: A clause that gives specific information about a noun or pronoun and makes it relative (Der Mann, den du siehst, ist mein Vater)
Relative Pronoun: A pronoun (such as "who" or "which") that introduces a relative clause (Der Mann, den du siehst, ist mein Vater)
Strong Verb: An irregular Verb. Irregular verbs may show variations in the formation of the stem or the endings (ich war, du warst, er/es/sie war, wir waren, ihr wart, sie/Sie waren)
Subject: The case that denotes the doer of an action (Er macht es.)
Subjunctive Mood: To express doubt, possibility, contrary to fact conditions and show politeness, the subjunctive is used. The subjunctive is also used to render indirect speech (Das könnte stimmen, Wenn ich könnte, würde ich kommen, Würden Sie bitte so nett sein, Er sagte, er käme erst morgen)
Subordinate Clause: see dependent clause
Subordinate Conjunction: A conjunction such as daß, ob, weil, wenn. Subordinate Conjunction cause the finite verb to be in final position in the clause (Es ist wahr, dass er auch kommen will.)
Superlative: The highest degree of an adjective or adverb (Sie ist die größte, Sie läuft am schnellsten)
Tense: A form of the verb that shows the time of the action such as the present, past and future tenses
Verb: Words expressing actions, existence or occurences (Er kommt schon, Der Winter ist kalt, Es regnet bald).
Verb Stem: The verb stem is that form of the verb we need to form personal verbs. It is the infinitive without its en or n ending (lern, arbeit, tu, sei, hab)
Voice: Voice determines whether the subject is the performer of the action (Active Voice: Der Hund beißt mich) or the recipient of the action (Passive Voice: Ich werde von dem Hund gebissen)
Weak Verb: A regular verb. Regular verbs are conjugated according to a standard norm (ich lernte, du lerntest, er/es/sie lernte, wir lernten, ihr lerntet, sie lernten)
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